- Ricky Menzies
- Last Checked and/or Updated 31 January 2025
- Travel Ideas, Norsemen & Vikings
The use of runes pre-dates the Viking era by at least 650 years. However, this does not mean those runes that preceded the Vikings are of less importance. To us as archaeologists and historians, much can be learned from looking at runic inscriptions holistically. Runes are our gateway to the preliterate societies of the Germanic world. They are some of our most important evidence for pre-Christian religion and poetry. The people of the Viking age would have lived among the runes as a typical occurrence, which would have shaped their world view. This we can also see in the beautiful artwork that accompanies many inscriptions. Examples such as the Jelling Rune Stones in Denmark represent the pinnacle of this practice.
Rune use did not stop after the conversion to Christianity brought with it the written word. In fact, many of the most important inscriptions we have date to after the Viking Age. Just like in today’s world, runes held significance to those in the past. When looking back, the practice of rune carving brought rune masters closer to their own heritage. By looking at runes in this perspective, we can learn more about the identities of those who lived in the Nordic Middle Ages. That is why, in this list I have included not only runes that date to the Viking Age, but also those that extend both before and after this narrow time frame in history.
This list is not written in order of importance or chronologically. However, I have outlined the known dating of the inscriptions and why they are worth visiting.
Little Sword inscription - Denmark
On the cutting edge of rune studies, a new artifact was recently discovered on the island of Funen just outside the town of Odense, Denmark. The iron knife blade, around eight centimetres long, was found in a grave below an urn. It is likely this was part of the deceased person’s grave goods. It has been dated by runologists to be around 1,850 years old, 800 years older than the famous Jelling stones. It may also be the second oldest runic inscription we have. This makes it a very rare discovery. Interestingly this was found less than ten miles away from the discovery location of the Vimose comb, one of the other oldest runic inscriptions.
The runes are in the Elder Futhark form, the oldest known runic writing system in the Germanic world. The inscription is short, with only five characters that spell the word “hirila” (English: little sword) in Proto-Norse. It is thought this word refers to the name of the knife rather than its owner.
The period in which this inscription was carved, c.150 AD, saw connections with the Roman world which may have influenced runic writing. This inscription therefore may help us understand the origins of the runic alphabet, a topic hotly debated in scholarship.
This important find was on display at the Museum of Odense and Funen until April 2024. However, it has now been taken down for conservation and study. It is worth watching for when this will go back on display in the future. Keep an eye on our Travel Community forum where we post news.
Svingerud stone - Norway
Sticking with the theme of oldest runes and recent discoveries, the Svingerud stone runic inscription was found in 2021. Discovered to the East of Oslo in Hole Municipality, Norway, this sand stone inscription dates back to between 1 – 250 AD. Uncovered during an investigation into a grave field near Tyrifjorden, this exciting find left archaeologists and runologists speechless. It has been described as the most significant runic find of the 21st century and a dream come true for runologists.
The inscription was likely carved with the tip of a knife. It has eight characters and has been interpreted to spell someone’s name. It is in the Elder Futhark form, which helps runologists date the find. It has been interpreted by runologists to read ‘For Idibera’. It is believed that this may be the oldest runestone ever found. The name is not the only inscription on this stone. There are several other markings such as zigzags which have no linguistic value. This gives the impression that the rune carver may have been practicing or playing with writing.
The stone itself is now held by the University of Oslo and was on display in 2023. However, it has now been taken down for research and conservation. In its current absence, a virtual exhibition of the stone can be found on Oslo’s Historical Museum website.
The Ramsund Carving - Sweden
Also known as the Sigurdsristningen (Sigurd Carving), this Viking Age carving represents the shared mythology of the Germanic and Norse world. Somewhat unusually carved on a rocky outcrop rather than a standing stone, this runic inscription is accompanied by depictions of the legend of Sigurd the dragon slayer. Dating to c.1030, the artwork makes reference to what we know of the Norse legend from the Poetic Edda and the Saga of the Volsungs.
What makes this inscription remarkable is the six different scenes from Sigurd the dragon slayer’s story depicted in the centre of the inscription. Key moments such as Sigurd killing Fafnir the Dragon and roasting the dragon’s heart to acquire the power to understand bird speech can be spotted. This story was one of the inspirations for J.R.R Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings trilogy and Richard Wagner’s Ring Cycle.
The inscription is around three meters wide. The runes are Younger Futhark, which helps date the inscription to the 11th century. The inscription itself is ambiguous but seems to be a dedication to a person named Sigríðr, who had a bridge built in their honour. It has been argued that the use of the Sigurd motifs were inspired by the similarity in names.
Located close to Ramsund, Eskilstuna Municipality, Sweden, the nearest main town is Fristadstorget. From here you can take the number 9 bus to Sundbyholm and the castle. There you can follow signs to Sigurdsristningen. There is also a car park on the other side of the road from the carving for those who want to drive.
Maeshowe - Orkney
Built in c.3000 BC and one of the largest Neolithic tombs on Orkney, MaesHowe was graffitied during the middle ages by a band of Norsemen. This graffiti is still visible to visitors who enter the tomb. The graffiti is in the form of runic inscriptions dating to the 12th century AD.
Originally excavated in 1861, archaeologists at the time realised that they were not the first to break into this tomb. Across the walls of the chamber, runic inscriptions were discovered by the archaeologists. Amazingly, this wasn’t the first piece of evidence that the Norse knew about MaesHowe. In fact, the Orkneyinga Saga makes specific mention of the neolithic tomb and how it acted as a shelter from a violent storm for a group of Harald Maddadson’s men in 1150.
There are over thirty inscriptions on the walls. Karen Langsholt Holmqvist undertook research and argued that the runes surface as a kind of community between different passers by over time. They seem to communicate between each other, giving us an insight into how these people wanted to be perceived in a private and enclosed space. Many of the inscriptions take on different subjects, from religious, to treasure, to sexual, to boasting. The inscriptions are scrawled all over the tomb, one even being so high up a ladder is required to read it. Some are even accompanied with small pieces of art.
To visit this fascinating site, it is mandatory to take an official tour. This can be booked through the Historic Environment Scotland website. Maeshowe is also included on our list of Best Viking Sites & Museums to Visit.
Kingittorsuaq Runestone - Greenland
Housed now at the National Museum of Denmark, this fascinating runestone was discovered in 1824 in Northwest Greenland on Kingittorsuaq Island, Upernavik Archipelago. It was found as part of three cairnes that made an equilateral triangle.
Of the sixty runic inscriptions found in Greenland, only one has been found on Kingittorsuaq Island, making it unique. The dating of this inscription has been disputed but most scholars agree to between 1250 and 1333. The final six characters on this inscription have been undeciphered and debated in academia since its discovery. The main body of the text names Erlingr Sighvatrs’ son, Bjarni Þorðr’s son and Eindriði Oddr’s son as the people who constructed the cairnes the Saturday before Rogation Day.
This stone not only showcases the fact that runes continued to be in use well after the Viking Age, but that the practice was undertaken in the furthest reaches of the Norse world. This custom gives insight into the expressed identities of those who lived in Greenland. This expression is a way for those who lived on the fringes and frontiers to connect with their heritage in Scandinavia.
Piraeus Lion - Italy
Venice has no shortage of Lion statues, especially at Arsenal. However, there is one lion that is unique among them. The lion itself was carved around 360 BC and became a symbol for Piraeus in Athens. It stood in its harbour until the 1600s when it was looted by a venetian naval commander and brought to its current location in Venice. What makes it so special is that during the second half of the 11th century, the lion was graffitied in runes. This was likely done by Varangian mercenaries from Scandinavia in the service of the Byzantine Emperor.
The artistic motif of a lindworm dragon scroll bears the inscription. The runes themselves tell us they were carved by Swedes. There has been much debate on the translation of the runes. Some have tried to link the name “Harold” to Harald Hardrada, however it is generally accepted this is likely not the case. Some of the inscription has been damaged, making it more difficult to interpret. What this inscription does tell us for sure, is that the Scandinavians travelled as far as the Byzantine Empire, were in service to the emperor, and were stationed in Greece.
This statue is located at the entrance of the Arsenal of Venice on the left. It is protected by a chain fence to prevent any more damage from coming to it. The inscription is difficult to make out in direct sunlight due to how worn it is. However, in the right light some remnants may still be spotted with the naked eye.
Jelling - Denmark
It’s impossible to talk about runestones and not mention the Jelling Runestones. The area of Jelling is archaeologically significant for its burial mounds, churches, and stone ships. However, one of the features that attracts the most attention is its runestones.
Considered to be Denmark’s birth certificate and the first instance that tells us of the country’s conversion to Christianity, it is little wonder these are such important runestones. The two stones seem to be linked to one Royal family. The older of the two stones was erected by King Gorm in honour of his wife Thyra. The younger and larger of the two was erected by their son Harald Bluetooth in memorial for his parents. It is here that he claims to have united Denmark and made the Danes Christian. On the reverse of the stone is a depiction of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ, entangled in what has been interpreted to be vines or branches. It is one of the oldest depictions of Jesus in Scandinavia.
The area around Jelling is well worth exploring. Being it was the seat of power it is steeped in Norse history. There is an exhibition to visit at the site to learn more about the significance of Jelling in Viking history.
Jelling is also included on our list of Best Viking Sites & Museums to Visit.
Tønsberg harbour game piece and rune stick - Norway
In an exciting twist of fate, two brand new runic inscriptions were found at Tønsberg harbour in Norway by commercial archaeologists in 2024. These exceptionally rare finds are the first runic artifacts found in Tønsberg in over eight years. The first was a circular wooden gaming piece with one rune carved on each side. The other was a rune stick found in the same harbour area with three runes inscribed on it.
This is so recent that runologists are still working on interpretations. However, being the gaming piece only has two runes, their meanings are up for debate. It is unclear whether the runes refer to a person, a decoration, or a function within the game. It has been compared to other gaming pieces with runic decorations to see if they are similar. What we do know is how rarely this seems to occur. Only 5-6 gaming pieces with runes have been found in Norway.
The runestick is also still being interpreted. It does seem to have similarities to the large corpus of runesticks found at Bergen, suggesting that runestick carving was practiced widely throughout Norway.
As of the writing of this article, these two runic inscriptions have not received an exhibition. However, being it is such an exciting and rare find, it will likely go on display in 2025. Keep an eye on our Travel Community forum where we post news.
Uppsala Runestones - Sweden
Uppsala is a haven for Norse history. Not only is it thought to be the location of a pagan temple beneath the old church, but also there are hundreds of burial mounds within the landscape to tell us what an important place this was. On top of that, there are ten runestones placed around the University grounds to see. These have been placed here as a monument to their importance to Scandinavian history.
Uppland has the highest concentration of Runestones in Sweden. It claims to be the largest open art exhibition in the world. Helpfully, the Uppsala website provides a map of all the runestones throughout the county. For those visiting Uppsala, there are a number of Viking related walking turs that include Runestones in their itineraries. A 2.5-hour walking tour of the Uppsala’s historical highlights and hidden gems includes the city’s Viking history and the runestones (further details and book online with GetYourGuide). A shorter walking tour (one hour) focusses specifically on the runestones in the University Park and at the cathedral (further details and book online with Viator).
Viking Museum Haithabu - Germany
The Hedeby Stones are a collection of four runestones dated to the 10th century AD found near the Viking village of Hedeby. Now in Germany, during the Viking Age Hedeby (Haitabu in German) was part of Denmark. From the 8th to 11th centuries, Hedeby was an important Viking trading settlement at the southern end of the Jutland Peninsula in what is the German region of Schleswig-Holstein today. Added to the UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites in 2018, part of the site has been reconstructed and is now a major attraction. Next to the archaeological site is the Viking Museum Haitabu, with its extensive exhibition of the finds from the site – including the Hedeby Stones.
Displaying the runestones, the museum has installed an interesting audio-visual feature for one of the stones, the Skarthi Stone. As different parts of the runic stone are successively highlighted in yellow, visitors can hear the words spoken and a translation of the script is projected onto the floor in front of the stone in German, Danish and English.
The Skarthi Stone was raised by King Sveinn, circa 982 to honour the memory of Skarði, referred to as a heimþegar – one who serves a king (or other royalty) and receives gifts, such as houses, from them. The inscription tells us that Skarði went west, but that he died in Hedeby. Hence the stone erected here. Scholars have interpreted this as him having gone to England (west). King Sveinn is thought to be Sveinn Forkbeard, who was King of England. What is not made clear in the inscription is whether the two men travelled to England together, and whether Skarði was injured in England but died on his return to Hedeby, or whether he returned safely from England and then died in Hedeby.
Ribe Skull Fragment - Denmark
Found in 1973 in Denmark’s oldest town, Ribe, this human skull fragment has a transitional Younger Futhark runic inscription calling to the gods. It has been interpreted as a possible amulet due to the hole drilled into the fragment, which may have been used for a necklace. Other interpretations have suggested this is actually an example of trepanning a skull for medical and magical purposes.
The find itself is dated to around the mid-8th century AD around forty years before what we now call the Viking Age in Denmark. It is also around 200 years before Denmark became Christian, making this a relic of the pagan past. Although much of the inscription is in Younger Futhark, two characters from Elder Futhark are also used, giving us a glimpse into the transition between the two Futharks.
In 2021, an extensive study by Jackie Nordström under a microscope led to its current interpretation. The inscription appears to be an invocation of three gods; Ulf (English: wolf), Odin, and Tyr to help protect a newborn child against a Dwarf.
It is currently on display at the Ribes Viking Museum in Denmark.
The Manx Runestones - Isle of Mann
The Isle of Mann has a fascinating relationship with the Norse in history. With strong ties to its Celtic roots, when the Norsemen arrived and began to settle there, instead of displacing the Celtic residence, they began to live alongside them. How do we know this? The runestones and their depictions found on the Isle of Mann are of mixed heritage.
Over 200 decorated stones stand across the island. Many of them can be found in Churchyards and cemeteries. Some of them contain Celtic artforms and a form of Celtic script called Ogham. Others contain Norse and Christian motifs and Runic inscriptions. Most fascinatingly are the carvings that fuse both Norse and Gaelic inscriptions together in Runes and Ogham. Through this, historians have been able to make the argument that the Norse did not always simply displace the current population of a place they settled. They were capable of living together with natives, and even thrive socially.
Of the 200 decorated stones, 31 of them are runestones. Most of them date to around the 10th century. Many of them have Celtic Crosses which represent both the Celtic and Christian identity of the inhabitants. They will also have runic inscriptions along the narrow edge of the stones in memorial for Norsemen such as Gaut’s Cross. However, other stones will also depict mythological scenes of the Norsemen, such as Fafnir and Odin on Thorwalds’s Cross, at Kirk Andreas.
Øvre Stabu spearhead - Norway
Found on the Øvre Stabu farm at Eastern Toten, Oppland, Norway, in one of two graves, this iron lancehead bearing a runic inscription dates as early as the 200s AD. This is one of the oldest runic inscriptions preserved on an object and the earliest known inscription in Norway.
Written in Elder Futhark, the single Proto-Norse word Raunijaz (English: Tester) likely refers to the object’s name rather than the owner. Found in a grave, the man may have been a warrior. Unfortunately due to corrosion, it is difficult to see the inscription with the naked eye. The display at the Historical Museum in Oslo, where it can be viewed, provides a sketch of the inscription along with the decoration.
Hagia Sophia - Turkey
There are plenty of reasons to visit the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul. However, one that not everyone might be aware of is the cheeky Norse graffiti on its sacred walls.
Constantinople was the heart of the Byzantine Empire. It attracted people from all over Europe and the East to its centre. Some of those people happened to be Norsemen who were prized for their large stature and fighting capability. They were inducted into a unit called the Varangian Guard who were used as the Emperor’s personal fighting force. The Sagas tell us of Harald Hadrada and others who fought in these units. We have seen evidence that they must have been stationed in Greece based on the inscription on the Piraeus Lion. However, there is also evidence to show that they resided in the city of Constantinople as well.
On the marble parapet of the former church, some interesting runic graffiti from what is suspected to be a member of the Varangian Guard were carved. Two inscriptions have been found as of now, although five have been submitted to the Norwegian Runic Archive for analysis and interpretation. The two that we do know about are short and slightly illegible. The first was discovered in 1968 on a parapet on the top floor of the southern gallery and only reads the name “Halfdan”. However, it has been suggested that the original inscription followed the usual convention of “Halfdan carved these runes.”
The second inscription was discovered in 1975 in an alcove in the northern part of the same gallery as the first inscription. Until 2011, the second inscription was condemned to be too illegible to read. However, Runologist Elena A. Melʹnikova made an argument that they actually read “Arinbárðr cut these runes”.
The Vimose inscriptions - Denmark
Until the discovery of the Little Sword Inscription, the Vimose comb was considered the oldest known runic inscription in the world, dating to around c. 160AD.
found on the island of Funen, Denmark, the inscription bears Elder Futhark runes that may show us a glimpse not only into the Proto-Norse language but perhaps the older, later Proto-Germanic language. This object, with the single word “harja” (English: Comb or Warrior) was carved during the Roman Empire.
The confidence in the use of this label suggests that despite its age, it is unlikely to be the oldest runic inscription ever to have existed. This suggests that runes were used for even longer than when this inscription was made. It could be that a basic writing system may have been used by Germanic people in Europe for hundreds of years longer than we currently understand. It also throws into question the origin of the runes, and how the system developed.
This object is currently on display at the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen.
Wooden Spade Inscription - Iceland
There are very few Runic inscriptions found in Iceland. However, the inscriptions that we do have are important for our understanding of the development of language and writing in the country from the settlement onwards.
Writing was introduced to Iceland shortly after the conversion to Christianity in the year 1000 according to Ari fróði Þorgilsson in Íslendingabók. However, this did not seem to have impacted the use of runes on objects after people began to become literate. We know this from the corpus of runic inscriptions that date to the 12th century onwards. One of these inscriptions comes from a wooden spade found in 1933 in a peat bog in Indriðastaðir, Vesturland, Iceland. It reads “boatiatmik, inkialr, kærþ” (English: Páll had me (made), Ingjadur made me).
Finds such as this suggests that those who still worked the fields may not have been literate in Latin or the vernacular writing system, but were still able to write and understand runes. Runes were often used to denote property and give credit to craftsmen as far back as 200AD. This tradition therefore seems to have lived on even a thousand years later.
The wooden spade inscription is on permanent display at The National Museum in Reykjavik.
The Tune Stone - Norway
Discovered in 1647 in Tune, Østfold, Norway in a churchyard wall, this important runestone dates back to between 200 – 450 AD. It is considered one of the most important Norwegian runic inscriptions ever discovered.
The stone, 2 metres tall, contains the second longest inscription in Elder Futhark runes written vertically on two sides. The corresponding language is Proto-Norse. An interpretation was first suggested by Sophus Buggus in 1903 and Carl Marstrander in 1930. The interpretation was later disputed by Ottar Grønvik in 1981. Today, it is cautiously accepted that it reads: “I, Wiwaz(darter), made the runes after Woduridaz(fury-rider) the guardian of the bread(bread warden), my companion(lord). For me, Woduridaz, three daughters, the most distinguished of the heirs, prepared the stone”
Today it can be viewed at the Norwegian Museum of Cultural History in Oslo. A replica of the runestone is also standing exactly where it was found in the churchyard in Tune, Østfold.
Krogsta Runestone - Sweden
This lesser known runestone is dated to between the 6th and 8th Century and was found in Krogsta, Uppland, Sweden. The drawing of a man next to an inscription has an interesting interpretation. It was discovered in 1594 AD by Johannes Bureus.
Written in Elder Futhark, one of the two inscriptions has been interpreted to be gibberish. The second of the two seems to spell the Proto-Norse word for “stone”. For this reason, runologists have interpreted this to have been a practice stone for learning how to inscribe in runes. The accompanying drawing has been described as naive and amateurish which strengthens this interpretation. However, other scholars have suggested the upright hands may be an attempt at depicting someone in prayer.
Although obscure, this is an important stone, reminding us that not all runic inscriptions are masterpieces. Rune masters needed to learn somewhere and this is clearly how they did it.
The stone is placed on a farmer’s field near Upplandstuna, in Uppland, Sweden. To find the stone, park at the “meeting place” by the road, and continue about 10 meters towards the farmhouse. Keep an eye out to the left towards the paddock. There is a fence that you must get over to get closer to the stone. The stone stands approximately 4 meters from the road under a pine tree.
Codex Runicus - Denmark
Perhaps one of the most unique runic works we have, the Codex Runicus is the only manuscript in existence to have been written entirely in runic script. Dating to c. 1300, it is unclear how this manuscript came into the hands of Arnie Magnusson, an avid manuscript collector.
The manuscript is 200 pages long and came from Skåne in Sweden, which used to be a part of Denmark. The text itself includes a handful of the laws from Skåne, church law, and some history of the legendary kings of Denmark. However, the most famous inclusion in this manuscript appears on the final page. It is the earliest musical notation and lyrics of any secular song in Scandinavia.
The first and most obvious question scholars ask is, why runes? During a time in which almost all manuscript writing was done in Roman Latin script, why was this one individual manuscript produced to resemble a cultivated and dated writing form? It has been put forward that this manuscript represents a clash of cultures between the Christians who wanted Scandinavia to enter the European world and the Scandinavians who desired to hold onto their own Norse identity.
The manuscript is now housed in the Arnamagnæan Institute at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark. Keep an eye out for when it will be displayed on exhibition.
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